Management Dynamics Management Dynamics

(1) Individuals differ in: (a) cognitive/cogitative types; (b) modal types: (c) degree of awareness of unconscious layers of thought process; (d) utilization of strategic judo and camouflaged reversal. (2) Cognitive/cogitative types should not be confused with skill types, aptitude types, emotional types, or personality types. (3) Individual differences in cognitive/cogitative types are mostly phenotypically innate. Therefore the assumption that you should be able to make everybody understand you is incorrect. (4) Communicational modal types are: factual mode, contextual mode, pictorial mode, insinuative mode, deceptive mode, etc. (5) Unconscious layers include self-deception, repression of one's own perception, inability to distinguish whether or not one is lying to oneself. (6) Strategic methods are a part of communication, and include strategic judo, and camouflaged reversal.

individual differences, they tend to attribute the differences to emotional types, personality types, or more narrowly skill types or aptitude types.The first step of this article is to correct this confiasion.
There can be as many cognitive/cogitative/action types as there are individuals.However, in most cultures the following four types and their mixtures account for approximately two-thirds of the population: This short characterization of foxir most Sequent cognitive/cogitative/action types is given here in order to clarify that they are NOT skill types, aptitude types, emotional types, or personality types.Details of the types will be given later.
Most people, who are not aware of the existence of the heterogeneity of the individual cognitive/cogitative/action types and therefore assume that there is only "one logic" with which all people think, tend to attribute communication failure to insufficient explanation.Consequently they blame you if someone does not understand you.As will be discussed, communication between different cognitive/ cogitative/action types is as difficuh as to explain colors to those who were bom blind, or to explain music to those who were bom deaf Another fallacious tendency among the academics is that when they see four categories, they try to convert them into a two-by-two table.But the four types H, I, S. and G can not be converted to such a scheme.The contrast between H and I is not parallel to the contrast between S and G.If they want a geometric representation, these four types are like the four comers of a tetrahedron (a pyramid with a triangular base).If you draw a line between two of the comers, and another line between the two remaining comers, these two lines are orthogonal, not parallel.The tetrahedron representation has another advantage.If you take a point inside it and draw, from the point, four lines perpendicular to Another common fallacy is to compare cultural or social groups, including gender groups, by making the average of each group and then comparing the averages.This practice entails two theoretical problems, even though the practice is prevalent and is even considered as "scientific".The first problem is that it makes individual types disappear.The second problem is that it makes a stereotype of each group and each gender.Many researchers have forgotten or never leamed that the Gaussian' 'normal" distribution (so-called bell-shaped curve) is valid only if events are random and independent, such as tossing a coin many times and counting the number of heads and tails.But biological and social events are neither random nor independent.They are linked by both unidirectional causality and causal loops.Therefore, it is illogical to assume normal distribution in biological and social processes.Maruyama has designed and used new methods of analysis which do not assume normal distribution.
As for the heterogeneity of communicational modal types, miscommunication arises when the communicating parties are unaware of the heterogeneity and assume that everybody is using the same modal type.Furthermore, this article goes into unconscious layers of thought process, which are seldom discussed in management theories.Finally, this article presents unconventional strategies which were used effectively in numerous cases.Each reader tends to try to interpret various schemes in terms of the scheme he or she is most familiar with, not only because of cognitive dissonance (Festinger 1957) or openness or closedness of mind (Rokeach 1960), but because of dimension reduction (Maruyama 1961(Maruyama ,1962(Maruyama ,1985(Maruyama ,2004)).However, cognitive/cogitative/action types (hereafter abbreviated as "mindscape types" (Maruyama 1980) cannot be reduced to any of the schemes mentioned above.Take, for example, MBTI and see how mindscape types differ from MBTI.MBTI contrasts personality characteristics in four pairs: extroverts vs. introverts; sensing vs. intuition; thinkers vs. feelers; well-defined objectives (fixed goals, end products, deadlines, etc.) vs. flexible process.These four pairs are considered to be independent dimensions (orthogonal Cartesian coordinates) to make combinations of In contrast, the concept of individual mindscape types considers basic epistemological structure which underlies and ties together the individual's cognition, cogitation, spatial organization, social interaction patterns, aesthetic preference etc.Therefore, whereas MBTI considers the four pairs as four independent dichotomous contrasts (which yield 2" = 16 possible combinations to characterize the individual as well as job types), the mindscape type of an individual ties together many aspects of the person's hfe because these aspects are expressions of the same mindscape.Furthermore, MBTI assumes homogeneity in each job type, but in the conceptualization of mindscape types, there can be individuals of many different mindscapes within each job type because there are different ways to carry out any given job.Most importantly, MBTI does not systematically consider the fact that any individuals type cuts across occupational boundaries.

Miscommunication between individuals of different mindscape types
Between persons whose mindscape types are different, mutual understanding can be illusory, difficult, impossible or one-sided.Suppose four persons X,Y, Z, and W have four different mindscape types H, I, S and G respectively.In urban and regional planning discussions, they can agree that "small is beautiful", which was a popular slogan in the 1970s.X can agree on the assumption that the whole country is homogeneous, and nothing is lost by dividing it into smaller administrative units.Y can agree on the assumption that each locality is different fi-om others, and therefore it is better to divide the whole country into small units.

Dimension reduction between mindscape types
Each person "understands" other persons by reducing the latters' statements into mental dimensions (Here the word "dimension" is used in the sense of Cartesian orthogonal coordinates, not in the sense of "size" as in the case in France) available in his/her mindscape.If the result of the reduction is intemally consistent, i.e. contains no logical contradiction, the person is convinced that he/ she understands the others "perfectly," even though he/she may be missing the most important point in their statements (Maruyama 1961(Maruyama ,1962(Maruyama ,1985)).This is highly fiiistrating fi-om the point of those whose thoughts are reduced.If someone says: "I understand you perfectly," it is highly likely that the person is doing dimension reduction.
Individual with H-type mindscapes do not even conceive the possibility that they may be doing dimension reduction, because they assume that all persons have the same logic, and therefore all persons have the same mindscape.To explain to H-type persons the heterogeneity of mindscape types is as impossible as to explain color to persons who were bom blind, or to explain music to those who were bom deaf

Can the individual change his/her mindscape type?
Various data show that much of a person's mindscape type is innate and persists throughout the life.However, there are some, very scarce data which suggest that mindscape types may change during the lifetime.Tsunoda (1978) found that natural sounds such as wind, waves, animal cries, bird songs, and insect songs are processed primarily in the dominant brain hemisphere (usually left side for right -handed people, and right side for lefthanded people) in Japanese individuals, but in non-dominant hemisphere in Europeans.Similarly, nonverbal human vocalizations such as laughing, snoring, sighing, and yawning were processes primarily in the dominant hemisphere in Japanese individuals and in the non-dominant hemisphere in Europeans.Furthermore, Tsunoda found that Japanese brought up in South America showed Management Dynamics, Volume 7, Number 2 (2007) the same pattern as Europeans, while some Europeans brought up in Japan showed same pattern as Japanese.Data on a few individuals who had moved from one culture to another culture in childhood suggest that the pattern formed in childhood does not change after the age of 10, but a larger sample would be required to ascertain the age at which the pattern becomes irreversible.There may be individual differences in the age limit for mindscape change.If the respondent of an interview is aware that the interviewer is native and unaware of the danger of certain types of information, the respondent gives a "tracer test" by giving manufactured credible information to see where the interviewer, who assumes it to be safe, leaks it.Information such as home address, work schedule, etc. is "safe" in the middle-class environment, but are very dangerous in neighborhoods where thieves abound.Moreover, middle-class interviewers to not know that policemen steal money from ghetto residents on the pretext of "confiscation", and social workers practice favoritism in exchange for sex.
As an example, take the case which happened in Berkeley in 1968, which was a city reputed for having a population very "hip to" (knowledgeable about) ghetto matters.A woman worked as a clerk at the city hall (mayoral administrative building equivalent to "mairie" in France, "Rathaus" in Germany, "stadshus" in Sweden, "raadhus" in Denmark).She had numerous children, whose "father" disappeared.She supplemented her income as a prostitute.In her neighborhood there were many women whose main source of income was prostitution.A neighbor, who was jealous of her City Hall job, told the City Hall that the woman was a prostitute.The woman lost thejob, and the neighbor got the job.In this case it was dangerous to let her neighbors know of her daytime work, and to let the City Hall know of her night time job.
In ghettos where thieves abound, one has to hide from her/his neighbors information such as hours of work, and has to keep a radio on or lamps on in order to give the impression that someone is home.

Some selected communication modal types are summarized as follows:
Factual mode is self-explanatory.same pastry telling the same or similar gossips.Subtle variations are considered interesting.For example, everyone knows that Mr. K ties his left shoe first, then his right shoe.One day he reverses the sequential order.This becomes big news.Less subtle information is avoided because it may disturb the familiar atmosphere.It is impolite to explain things, because such an act assumes that someone is ignorant.It is also impolite to ask questions beyond immediate personal concern, because the respondent may not know the answer.It is often considered aggressive or offensive to introduce new ideas.Discussion on politics or economics is taboo except in marginal enclaves.Safe topics of intellectual conversations are art, literature and music, on which people are expected to disagree without embarrassment (Maruyama 1992(Maruyama ,1994)).

Contextual mode: In some cultures, coding and decoding of messages
Deceptive mode which is culturally not deceptive: In China there was a man who attained a great fame by pretending to be humble, saying "I am no good."People knew that he was only pretending, and admired his skill at pretending to be humble.Therefore when he said, "I am no good," he was grammatically deceptive, but not culturally deceptive because people knew how to "decode" him Encouragement which was misdecoded as discouragement: Example: Ed has lost money in business and is depressed.Jim tries to cheer him up and says: "Don't cry over spilled milk."Thereupon Ed says to Jim: "Oh, you spilled your milk I will get you another glass of milk."In this case Ed is too sensitive to anyone's mention of his failure.Therefore Ed pretends not to understand Jim's metaphor.

Layers of mental processes hidden beneath the conscious level
Gregory Bateson (1956) gave the following example.A mother does not like her small son.She says to him: "Go to bed.You are very tired and I want you to get your sleep."If he does not want to realize that she does not like him, then he must convince himself that he is tired even though he is not tired.He has to lie to himself about his own state, and he must repress the fact that he is deceiving himself

Strategic judo and camouflaged reversal
The secret of judo is to make your opponent to fall by his/her own momentum.1990,1992).This strategy can be used politically.For example, when the environmentalist movement increased in North America, most firms opposed stricter regulations.But one firm made use of the environmentalist movement.

If your opponent pushes you, you pull; if he/she pulls you, you push (Maruyama
An aquaculture firm devised a system to purify water beyond the prevalent legal requirement, and pressured the government by means of the environmentalist movement to establish a stricter requirement which the firm could satisfy but its competitors could not.Another example: in mid 1980s French ski makers wanted to sell their skis in Japan, but were told by the Japanese government that Japanese snow was different from French snow.It would have taken too much time to scientifically argue that the snow in the two countries was the same.A quick business strategy would have been to go along with the Japanese government's claim and to tell the Japanese government that they would manufacture skis designed for the Japanese snow.To do so, they simply could have painted their skis like Japanese skis, or shortened their skis because Japanese people are shorter than French people.Experienced salespersons know how to avoid arguing against their customers, but this common sense is often forgotten in international business.Remember that obstacles which annoy you also annoy your competitors.

High level planners in Japan who used strategic judo
During the Second World War, high -level -anti -war planners in Japan played strategic judo against the militarists.Actually, anti-war/pro-war conflicts originated during Meiji Period in the form of Navy/Army rivalry.In 1987 Tokugawa government (Edo Government) ended and Emperor Meiji took over the administrative power and responsibility in Japan.After 264 years of the antiforeign isolationistic policy of Edo Government, Japan had much to catch up with European and North American science, technology, political and institutional systems.During that period, Japan imported the navy system from England, and the army system from Germany.The British Navy was internationally experienced, not only within Europe in terms of its politics with Dutch and Spanish navies, but also in Asia and Africa where England, France and Netherlands had numerous colonies.Spain had colonies in central and south Americas, and France had colonies in the Atlantic Ocean as well as in the Pacific Ocean.In contrast, German Army was not only nationalistic but more narrowly Preussen-centered.In 1861 Wilhelm the First became the king of Preussen.In 1862 Bismarck became the prime minister of Preussen.In 1867, in the same year as the beginning of Meiji Era in Japan, North German AlUance was established centering around Preussen.

Maruyama
In 1881, Wilhelm the First became the emperor of Germany.This intemationaHst / nationahst contrast between British Navy and German Army was clearly mirrored in Japan.
Between the First World War and the Second World War, the top level of the Japanese Navy had many persons who had lived in foreign countries.For example, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the top commander in the Nevy at the beginning of the World War II, had studied at Harvard University.In contrast, the Army had very few Generals who were interested in foreign countries.An exceptional example is Tsugukira Fuijita, a high -ranking Army physician.He had relatives who traveled to foreign countries, and he liked to listen to news of foreign countries (Bimbaum 2006).Furthermoire, he was well-versed in Chinese classics and history, and would not have tolerated the atrocities committed by the Japanese Army in China and other Asian countries, for example "the rape of NanKing" and "Battan Death March" in the Philippines, in both of which many civilians died.
In February, 1936, a group of young army officers assassinated anti-war government officials, and thereafter the politics in Japan was dominated by the pro-war Army.On July 7,1937, the Japanese Army provoked a war against China near Beijing, with the pretext that a Chinese soldier shot a bullet in the direction of the Japanese Army.At that time, Chang Kai-shek was busy fighting Mao's communist army and ignored the Japanese invasion.Incidentally, Chang had graduated from the Military Academy in Japan.
While the Japanese Army was busy instigating and preparing for an expansion of war to Southeast Asian countries in order to plunder oil and other natural resources, the Navy maintained its anti-war stance.Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who knew the geographic size and the industrial capacity of North America, knew that if North America would become involved in a war against Japan, it would be impossible to win the war.When he was asked "How long would Japanese Navy be able to hold out in the Pacific Ocean"?", he replied "Two or three years."Actually that time estimate was shortened because the Japanese secret telegram message code was deciphered and the tide turned against Japan already in June 1942 when the Japanese Navy was ambushed and defeated at Midway Island.That is to say, only six months after "Pearl Harbor."Yoka heigakkoo: a strategic judo and camouflaged reversal by the Japanese Navy "Heitgakkoo means "naval academy.""Yoka" means "preparatory."Therefore, the two words together should mean "naval pre-academy."It sounds like a pro-war school.However, it was an anti -war device.During the last phase (1944)(1945) of the Second World War, middle-school (chuugaku: equivalent of Gymnasium in Germany, and Lycee in France) students were mobilized to factories to replace regular factory workers who were drafted into the army.This caused an educational vacuum among middle school students.To remedy the situation, the Navy played a strategic judo.The Navy knew that after Japan's defeat, Japan would need scientists and engineers in post-war technological and industrial development.The Navy selected, by means of a centralized nation-wide examination at the main campus of Heigakkoo, for which the Navy paid the train tickets of the applicants who had been pre-selected by the middle schools, the brightest middle school students, and took them out of factories and put them in Yoka Heigakkoo, which the Navy invented, and which was camouflaged as a pro-war effort.However, no war-related courses were taught.On the contrary, the curriculum included mathematics, physics (up to thermodynamics).Chemistry, Biology, English, World Geography, World History which emphasized upon cultural and social history instead of battle history.It paid off immediately after the war.The results were not only post-war technological innovations, but also a new kind of business management practices such as horizontal and vertical job rotation which fostered interactive invention (Maruyama 1989(Maruyama ,2002)), sense of joint and overlapping responsibility (Maruyama 1985(Maruyama ,1994) ) with which anyone can correct anyone else's errors in the assembly line without the need to send back the defective unit back upstream where the errors were made.This system originated in Japan, and spread to some other countries.
The students of Yoka Heigakkoo were provided with everything necessary not only for their studies but also for their health, such as nutritious meals with ingredients including meat, which was unavailable in the war-time general population, and occasional cakes which were undreamt of during the war.In contrast, the meals at the factories where middle school students were mobilized were no more than thinly diluted rice soup.The nutritional deficiency caused not only physical and mental weakness but also diseases and infections.Tuberculosis was rampant.

Maruyama
While the Yoka Heigakkoo students were pampered, the Navy also ran an "infrastructure" of slave labor in the form of Yoka Renshuusei (Yokaren).The Yokeren trainees were baited by the government propaganda, supposedly to become the glorious kamikaze suicide pilots, but were channeled to hard labor such as digging air-raid shelters for Yoka Heiugakkoo.All these categories can re-orient the practice of communication in business.
Management Dynamics, Volume 7, Number 2 (2007) New Dimensions in Business Communication: Unconscious Layers, 139 Strategic Judo, and Camouflaged Reversal the four surfaces, the sum of the lengths of the four Unes is a constant.Therefore the length of each line can represent the percentage of each type in the mixture.Furthermore, one-dimensional thinkers tend to place the four types on a straight line, most frequently in the sequential order H-I-S-G.But this scheme does not work either H is zero-sum; I is negative-sum; and S and G are positivesum.You cannot put a negative-sum type between a zero-sum type and two positive-sum types.
Management Dynamics, Volume 7, Number 2 (2007) New Dimensions in Business Communication: Unconscious Layers, 141 Strategic Judo, and Camouflaged Reversal Z and W can agree on the assumption that the country consists of heterogeneous parts which interact for mutual benefit.Because the differences in the assumptions are unstated at the beginning and four persons proceed with different plans, later they can accuse one another of being liars.

I
might add two considerations: (1) In Japan, music instruments such as shakuhachi (similar to clarinet in shape, and in the way the player blows air into the instrument) are played like human singing, while in Europe, opera singers sing like music instruments; (2) Tsunoda used the technique of sound interference in his experiments.Each subject performed sound "taps" like the old-fashioned telegram operator.Each tap activated a prerecorded sound for 50 to 75 milliseconds.The tap reached one ear without delay, and the other ear with a 200 milliseconds delay.The short duration of the tap was chosen to prevent the subjects from identifying the type of the sound.Thus the subjects did not know whether it was a natural sound or manmade sound.The delayed channel amplitude was gradually increased from a very low level to the level that disturbed the tapping task.Then the channels were exchanged between the two ears and the procedure was repeated.The sensitivity difference between the two ears had been pre-tested and the amplifier levels had been pre-adjusted.In 1978, fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) was not yet available, (to copy editor and typesetter: the 'f is in low case, and MRI are in capitals.This is a technical word and must be written the way.)Today fMRI is available, but longitudinal studies (testing the same individual from childhood to later ages) have not yet been performed (Maruyama 2003).Relevance dissonance, criticality dissonance, counter-exploitation Humans are not automatic answering machines.Human brains calculate the effects of response-giving, and compute the responses which minimize danger and harm, shorten the bothersome conversation such as an interview, and counterexploit the interview for maximum benefit.There are also various techniques such as pretending to misunderstand the interviewer's questions, cleverly extracting information from the interviewer, or giving the impression that the interviewer is getting some exclusive confidential information, or fabricating what the interviewer wants to hear.For example.Management Dynamics, Volume 7, Number 2 (2007) New Dimensions in Business Communication: Unconscious Layers, 143 Strategic Judo, and Camouflaged Reversal prison inmates study the symptoms of various mental illnesses, and act out some chosen symptoms in front of the prison psychiatrist in order to get transferred to the isolation unit to avoid getting killed by other inmates (Maruyama 1978).
depends mostly on the context.Take Denmark as an example.The main purpose of interpersonal communication is maintenance of familiar atmosphere and affect.A small group of friends often sit together in the same coffee shop, eating the Management Dynamics, Volume 7, Number 2 (2007) Civilians i.e. general population used various forms of camouflaged protests if they found out what went on behind the governmental smoke screen.For example, music composers used major scales with lyrical words for Yoka Heigakkoo, and minor scales for Yokaren.The school song for Yoka Heigakkoo was worded as follows: directions" where arrows point to major cities in order for students to salute their parents and report the day's accomplishments.The students went to the garden every evening.This name was coined after Happooen (the garden of eight directions) which existed in the main campus of the Naval Academy (Heigakkoo).** According to the Japanese Mythology, the first ancestor of the imperial family descended on Takachiho Mountain.* * * A legend tells that there is a harp on the bottom of an inlet, and it plays music by itselfOrdinary people expressed their anti-war protests by means of sarcastic puns, converting war songs into anti-war songs, containing "obscene" words.' numerous concepts which are not yet used or seldom used in theories of communication in business.These concepts can be divided into several categories: (a) Those which are commonly used in psychology, sociology and other disciplines but not in business;(b) Those which are misunderstood or misinterpreted in psychology, sociology and other disciplines, and corrected meaning are given in this article;(c) Those which are new and are introduced for the first time in this Article.